Language Education
Reza Pishghadam; Shima Ebrahimi
Abstract
Considering the rapid progress of technology in the fields of cognition, robotics, and artificial intelligence, as well as the abundance and easy access to educational materials in cyberspace, traditional education no longer meets the actual needs of society. Informal education has overcome formal education ...
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Considering the rapid progress of technology in the fields of cognition, robotics, and artificial intelligence, as well as the abundance and easy access to educational materials in cyberspace, traditional education no longer meets the actual needs of society. Informal education has overcome formal education by placing a greater emphasis on techniques and skills. In this article, two types of education were introduced: a) Mindsetting education (including mind-filling education and mind-developing education) and b) Brainsetting education (including brain-exercising education and brain-generating education). The first relates to thinking and thoughts, and the second is knowledge and skills. In fact, with the advent of intelligent educational systems, there has been a shift from soft, mental, and human approaches to more hard, cerebral, and machine approaches, which teachers and educational specialists need to consider.
Reza Pishghadam; Shima Ebrahimi; Taqi Al Abdwani
Abstract
The major objective of the study was to develop and validate a Teacher Energy scale in light of the metapathy concept. To do so, first, a model was developed classifying teachers into energy creators, energy boosters, energizers, energy drainers, and energy killers. This was followed by the development ...
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The major objective of the study was to develop and validate a Teacher Energy scale in light of the metapathy concept. To do so, first, a model was developed classifying teachers into energy creators, energy boosters, energizers, energy drainers, and energy killers. This was followed by the development of a 30-item scale. A total of 283 language learners (170 women and 113 men) between the ages of 15 and 51were asked to answer the Teacher Energy scale. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was employed to analyze the data. The findings showed that the scale was invalid due to the similarity of items—since the learners gave identical answers to the items and did not distinguish between the factors underlying the questionnaire. Then, the scale was reduced to 12 items, and SEM was used. The results showed that the Teacher Energy scale with two subconstructs of energy-boosting and energy-draining was valid. The results were discussed, and some suggestions were made for researchers and educators.
Reza Pishghadam; Shima Ebrahimi
Abstract
The Academy of Persian Language and Literature is the regulatory body for preserving the Persian language and its orthography, trying to protect the Persian language from fragmentation and possible related dangers. As the name implies, the Academy of Persian Language and Literature is expected to focus ...
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The Academy of Persian Language and Literature is the regulatory body for preserving the Persian language and its orthography, trying to protect the Persian language from fragmentation and possible related dangers. As the name implies, the Academy of Persian Language and Literature is expected to focus on culture and identity as well. Notwithstanding this expectation, the goals, duties and performance of the academy suggest that its main focus is on its lexical and linguistic functions. It goes without saying that culture and language are inextricably linked; therefore, when you speak of language, you cannot overlook the role of culture. The present paper introduces the new concept of cultulinguia, meaning an arena for displaying cultulings (the culture within the language). Along with the academy, cultulinguia can play an effective role. The academy appears to have a top-down, power-oriented, prescriptive, monophonic, and word-centered approach, with a strong focus on the form of the word than meaning. Consequently, people may not be interested in using these words as they become exvolved in such words. Cultulinguia, in contrast, follows a bottom-up approach, which is people-oriented, descriptive, polyphonic and culture-oriented, meaning that all people within the society can constructively contribute to it. Additionally, cultulinguia tries to achieve the culture hidden in the language by focusing on cultulings and paves the way for cultural excellence by replacing defective cultural memes. Through this, people become more involved in cultulings and the views of the majority of people are taken into account when it comes to make a decision. This should be noted that the academy and the cultulinguia act like two wings for the linguistic and cultural excellence of the given society and they can complement each other and meaningfully contribute to linguistic and cultural planning.
Haniyeh Jajarmi; Reza Pishghadam; Sahar Moghimi
Abstract
Repetition, as an effective way to learn vocabulary, has long been the subject of language instruction. However, it seems that the effective number of repetitions in language classrooms has been less considered by the linguistic research and consequently language instructors. Capitalizing on the emotioncy ...
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Repetition, as an effective way to learn vocabulary, has long been the subject of language instruction. However, it seems that the effective number of repetitions in language classrooms has been less considered by the linguistic research and consequently language instructors. Capitalizing on the emotioncy (emotion+ frequency) concept, this study investigates the effective number of word repetitions in class and based on a review of research in linguistic areas and cognitive psychology, it elucidates the spaced repetition method. To this end, 100 participants with intermediate proficiency level were randomly assigned to five groups (1, 2, 3, 4, and no repetition(s)). Then, 15 words about which the participants knew nothing were taught. To compare the results of the retention test of the five groups, one-way ANOVA was utilized. The findings demonstrated a significant difference in favor of the two repetitions group. Therefore, two spaced repetitions, along with the learners' emotioncy level towards the new words can play a pivotal role in vocabulary learning in language classrooms.
Reza Pishghadam; Shima Ebrahimi
Abstract
Effective communication can be considered as a social process reflected in lexical chains. In fact, speaking can be considered as a communicative mediator which hinges on the speaker’s linguistic competence, but if the aim of a given dialogue is to have a more effective communication, one should ...
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Effective communication can be considered as a social process reflected in lexical chains. In fact, speaking can be considered as a communicative mediator which hinges on the speaker’s linguistic competence, but if the aim of a given dialogue is to have a more effective communication, one should move beyond the speaker’s subliminal intentions. The present study, therefore, tries to examine the influence of “postlocution” as a level beyond communicative competence, and attempts to introduce “brainling” based on brain structures. This model considers language as a tool for behavioral changes and developments, and offers the four concepts of cogling (cognition in language), emoling (emotions in language), cultuling (culture in language), and sensoling (senses in language). The proposed model can be used to portray a different and more comprehensive picture of brain’s macro functions, which is useful for a better and more effective communication. From this perspective, in addition to paying attention to self-oriented language, a dialogue should take other-oriented language into consideration, and individuals should attend to both communicative competence and linguo-therapeutic competence (language for a better life).
Reza Pishghadam; Shima Ebrahimi
Abstract
Effective interaction between teachers and learners plays a crucial role in the learning process. In order to create positive emotions and motivation for learners in the classroom environment, there should be a mutual relationship between the sender of the message, namely the teacher, and the receiver ...
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Effective interaction between teachers and learners plays a crucial role in the learning process. In order to create positive emotions and motivation for learners in the classroom environment, there should be a mutual relationship between the sender of the message, namely the teacher, and the receiver of that message, namely the student. Due to the importance of positive emotions in the learning process, the purpose of the present study is to introduce a teaching model that provides the basis for effective communication between learners and their teacher by means of involving their senses more deeply, which consequently leads to producing more positive emotions. Indeed, the teacher is considered as an envolver who controls the class and is authorized to identify and classify various concepts in the classroom. Should the teacher be able to use creative teaching methods for involving senses more, s/he can get the materials internalized more effectively in the learners’ minds. In such situations, s/he helps the learners as a facilitator in their emotionalization process. Moreover, the teacher can become the transvolver, who encourages the learners to move up the ladder of emotionalziation themselves. The authors of the present study have therefore introduced the teachers' roles as envolvers and transvolvers, and have used the two components of communication and senses to divide teaching techniques into envolving and transvolving categories. Envolving techniques have two subsets of centri-communication and centri-sensory, and transvolving techniques are also divided into peri-communicative and peri-sensory. It is expected that by utilizing such techniques, effective communication between the teacher and the students be established and the content be internalized more effectively in the long-term memory.
Sahar Tabatabaee Farani; Reza Pishghadam; Sahar Moghimi
Abstract
There is no doubt that reading comprehension is one of the main skills of English language that plays a significant role in learning. Foreign language reading anxiety is one of the issues that can affect the quality of reading comprehension. Researchers have identified several factors such as different ...
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There is no doubt that reading comprehension is one of the main skills of English language that plays a significant role in learning. Foreign language reading anxiety is one of the issues that can affect the quality of reading comprehension. Researchers have identified several factors such as different writing systems, and cultural issues that may be anxiety provoking while the language learners are reading foreign language texts. Given the significant role of positive and negative emotions in the process of language learning, the language learner’s level of emotioncy regarding the content of the reading comprehension text can be considered as another factor that can cause foreign language reading anxiety. Emotioncy that consists of sense, emotion, and frequency deals with different emotions about linguistic items that language learners form due to different sensory experiences they have already had about those items. The present study tries to introduce engaging the five senses of language learners, and improving their emotioncy level for the content of reading comprehension text as possible solutions to control foreign language reading anxiety. Further studies are required to determine different types of emotioncy, and the appropriate order and combination of the five senses to control foreign language reading anxiety.
Safoora Navari; Reza Pishghadam; Azar Hosseini Fatemi; Mohammad Reza Hashemi
Abstract
The present study sought to implement the idea of ELT for life among language education practitioners by challenging and materializing the notion of Applied ELT. In so doing, constructing some novel scales seemed inevitable. Highlighting the premises of Life Syllabus, this study devised and validated ...
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The present study sought to implement the idea of ELT for life among language education practitioners by challenging and materializing the notion of Applied ELT. In so doing, constructing some novel scales seemed inevitable. Highlighting the premises of Life Syllabus, this study devised and validated a TPCS-ELLTs (Teachers’ Perceptions of Creativity Scale for English Language Learning Textbooks) with 45 items to evaluate the current English language textbooks regarding the level they increase the creativity of language learners. The TPCS-ELLTs was validated through statistical procedures like Rasch rating model and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) which at last provided a model with a 6-point Likert scale. This scale was administered to a group of 164 EFL teachers at private language institutes. After more investigation, it was clear through Rasch model that, those items having infit MNSQ greater than 1.4 deviate from the expected model and degrade the analysis. Therefore, after changing some items, it was concluded that this scale as a unidimensional model, contains a high reliability and also a correct 6-point Likert. In other words, this scale is a precise measurement of the construct and therefore well-targeted for the sample. Furthermore, some recommendations regarding the implication and conclusions of this study in other fields of language teaching have been pointed out.
Reza Pishghadam; Shima Ebrahimi; Golshan Shakeebaee
Abstract
"Capital" is an important sociological concept, which shows how the objective structures of any given society (social rules, norms, roles, institutions, and cultural instruments) can influence the mental structures of individuals and their social behaviors. The most important capitals are economic, cultural, ...
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"Capital" is an important sociological concept, which shows how the objective structures of any given society (social rules, norms, roles, institutions, and cultural instruments) can influence the mental structures of individuals and their social behaviors. The most important capitals are economic, cultural, social, and natural capitals that can influence the learners’ motivation, attention, behavior, attitudes, and beliefs. Since the senses can be considered as a gateway to understanding the linguistic community and due to a close connection between them and the level of learner's emotions, the present study aimed to introduce emo-sensory capital and investigate its relationship with other forms of capitals in successful language learning. The results showed that using social, cultural, and natural capitals will increase the emo-sensory-capital in learners, which consequently leads to inter-subjectivity and facilitates learning. Therefore, instructors can use such capitals to engage the learners’ senses more deeply and increase their positive emotions, attention, and motivation. It is assumed that in this way, the content will be internalized and the learner will be more inclined to be more engaged in an active communication.
Zhila Ghaemi; Reza Pishghadam
Abstract
1. IntroductionThe importance of writing as a complex skill in applied linguistics has drawn the attention of many researchers to evaluating textbooks in order to help learners gain self-sufficiency and autonomy in the field of language use and communication. Investigations have shown that developments ...
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1. IntroductionThe importance of writing as a complex skill in applied linguistics has drawn the attention of many researchers to evaluating textbooks in order to help learners gain self-sufficiency and autonomy in the field of language use and communication. Investigations have shown that developments in textbook evaluation can promote the quality of pedagogies and consequently, the quality of learning. Silva and Matsuda (2002) support the idea that writing, as part of applied linguistics, is a way of communication. It is the product of creative, dynamic learning process that spirals naturally upward, and outward toward limitless possibilities, as it is fostered by examples over time (John-Steiner, 1985). It is clear that this complex skill requires support from a rich qualitative pedagogical curriculum based on a process-based approach, which involves students in planning, drafting, revising, and editing (Seow, 1995). Investigations have shown that developments in the textbook evaluation can increase the quality of learning (e.g., Richards & Renandya, 2002; Tompkins, 1990; Zamel, 1982). To simplify the complexity of the writing skill, the teachers' role is salient both as the interpreters of materials and as the one who teaches the principles of writing. According to Zamel (1982), many teachers usually do not evaluate student’s compositions based on the crucial principles of writing. Instead, they present writing as something which has always existed and needs to be developed by practice.Therefore, careful attention to the quality of the content is particularly important. There seem to be problems in the content, the order of the lessons, and the teaching approach in Persian writing textbooks, compared to the ones used for teaching English writing.2. MethodologyThis study was set out as a qualitative one. It attempted to analyze, first, the content of junior high and high school Persian textbooks and the EFL writing textbooks currently being taught at universities. It compared them with each other following three directions, namely subject matter frequencies, subject matter order, and teaching approach to writing. In fact, the study was set out to answer two research questions: “How do Persian textbooks present writing skill?” and “How do EFL textbooks present writing skill?”.3. DiscussionThe results of this study showed that the percentage and frequency of subject matters and pedagogical points related to writing in Persian textbooks are high, yet limited to a form of 'short notice' at junior high school. Although the writing lessons in high school textbooks are in an expanded lesson frame, they are still in the form of definitions or outlines as if they are just for exam purpose or for memorization. This is in opposition to theories of cognitive and conceptual learning (Ausubel, 1963). The results of the second phase of this study presented information that indicated how logically the subjects related to writing were set and organized in EFL textbooks and if they were organized based on the capability of the learner. The results revealed that lessons in EFL textbooks such as 'Writing with confidence' (Meyers, 2006; 2009) follow a logical order. A comparative study between the two systems (Persian and EFL textbooks) showed that EFL writing textbooks were much more carefully organized and designed. The topics in these course books were ordered from easy to difficult in teaching writing. They were written according to an organized pedagogical syllabus, which met learners’ needs and ability. Actually, reminding learners of the principles of writing made the writing process more effective. In contrast to EFL writing textbooks, there was no logical continuity in the order of lessons in Persian textbooks. It seems that Persian textbooks do not follow a logical order to present the relevant subjects and as a result, the topics and their order do not fit the capability of students. The results of the third phase of the study revealed that EFL textbooks emanate process-based approach whereas Persian textbooks implement the product-based approach. All in all, comparing the course books revealed that Persian textbooks do not deal with principles of writing comprehensively.4. ConclusionThe current study sought to compare EFL writing textbooks with Persian junior high and high school writing course books. The results revealed that there were differences in subject frequencies, the order of lessons presented, and the teaching approach. The results have implications for textbook writers. They can make modifications to the development of Persian textbooks. Reviewing the course books could lead to the students’ mastery of Persian written system as, among all factors that affect learning the writing skill, textbooks form one of the most important factors.
Shima Ebrahimi; Azam Estaji; Reza Pishghadam; Seyyed Amir Aminyazdi
Abstract
1. IntroductionTeaching Persian language to non-Persian speakers has various purposes such as making them familiar with the Iranian culture and customs, establishing more interpersonal interactions, enhancing business and professional communication, and finally increasing mutual understanding between ...
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1. IntroductionTeaching Persian language to non-Persian speakers has various purposes such as making them familiar with the Iranian culture and customs, establishing more interpersonal interactions, enhancing business and professional communication, and finally increasing mutual understanding between two cultures. Persian language classes and instructors play a fundamental role in satisfying the mentioned goals through modifying the learners’ attitudes. Attitude, as a set of beliefs, emotions, and behavioral intentions toward an object, a person, or an event, significantly influences the language learners’ overall success or failure. One of the factors influencing students’ attitudes is involving their senses and emotions. A pertinent concept which juxtaposes senses and their resultant emotions is emotioncy. Drawing upon the emotioncy model, in this study, the researchers made an attempt to teach Persian language cultural issues and, thereafter investigate the effect of this model on the attitudes of the Persian learners and their learning outcome. The concept of emotioncy was first introduced by Pishghadam, Tabatabaeyan, and Navari (2013). This model is based on the psychological findings of the developmental individual- differences relationship-based (DIR) model, and it assumes that emotions are the foundation of evolution and learning (Greenspan & Weider, 1997). According to the emotioncy model of Pishghadam (2015), when a language learner has never heard of a subject, s/he has no emotion for it (null emotioncy). When s/he hears about the subject, the degree of emotioncy of that word moves from the null to the auditory level, and if he sees or even touches that item, then the emotioncy can be raised from the auditory level to the visual and kinesthetic levels, respectively. If his experiences of this subject increase, in the next steps, the inner emotioncy of the word is created, and the learner can achieve an arch emotioncy by doing research. At this stage, an accurate understanding of the subject will be formed which will lead to profound learning.2. MethodologyIn the present study, the results of interviews with 60 non-Persian language learners from 16 countries (including India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Turkey, Egypt, Madagascar, Burundi, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Libya, Tajikistan, Lebanon, Iraq, Guinea-Bissau, Syria, and Indonesia) who were studying at Al-Mostafa International University were analyzed. To get the most information and a deep understanding of the participants' attitude, the learners were not selected randomly, but they were all purposefully selected from a group with similar relative knowledge of Persian. All participants in the study were non-Persian and female. They were between 17 and 30 years old (M= 23.5). The level of fluency in the Persian language was the same for all of them (Book Seven). All were studying at Al-Mostafa International University, and on average, one year had passed from their presence in Iran. Semi-structured interviews were used as for the qualitative phase. Based on the cultural topic taught in each class, with "Why" and "How" questions (Dornyei, 2007) students were asked to express their feelings about the topic and then to provide more explanations about their answers in two minutes. Therefore, according to the purpose of the study, their positive or negative attitudes toward the subject taught in the class were determined, and the change in their attitudes toward learning was evaluated. Four different cultural issues which were selected are as follows: "Yazd badgir" (Yazd windproof), "Ajil-e-moshgelgosha" (problem-solving nuts), "Mirzaqasemi" (a kind of Iranian food), "Zal and Simorgh's Story". Learners did not have any information about these subjects being completely related to the Iranian's culture and customs. The subjects were taught in four classes (each class included 15 learners), by the same lecturer according to the different levels of the emotioncy model (Pishghadam, 2015) and in 6 sessions (each session lasted 50 minutes including 20 minutes of teaching and 30 minutes of interviewing ( two minutes per participant)). Subsequent to teaching each subject, an interview was conducted to determine the participants' attitudes and emotions towards learning based on the emotioncy model.3. DiscussionThe results of the answers related to the auditory session showed that the learners did not have an effective relationship with the subject during this session and did not have a very positive attitude toward the subjects taught. According to the received responses, the observed results at the visual stage improved. The change in the attitude of the learners from negative to positive was also evident in the kinesthetic sessions. At this stage, since there was a more active engagement of the language learner with the subject, we also monitored a deeper attitude toward the subject, and the language learners gave convincing reasons for their responses and emotional experiences. In the fifth session (inner), having brought the necessary and relevant subjects into the class, the instructor asked the learners to simulate the subject taught. In the final session (Arch), the learners were asked to explore the resources available (cyberspace, library, etc.) about the topics taught during the fifth session (inner session). 4. ConclusionIn the emotioncy model proposed by Pishghadam (2015), levels of avolvement, exvolvement (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic), and involvement (inner and arch) are considered separately based on the subjects’ emotional experiences. That is, to teach a subject and gradually increase the level of emotion of an individual, six sessions are required to allow the learner to reach the desired level. However, according to the model proposed in this study, due to the time constraints, the small number of teaching sessions for each book, and the skills mentioned therein, it was not necessary to hold separate sessions at the exvolvement stage in teaching Persian to non-Persian speakers. Because the results of the study showed that learners can reach the desired level leading to positive attitudes by participating in involvement (inner and arch) sessions. Therefore, auditory, visual, and kinesthetic sessions could be integrated into the inner session simultaneously, and during the inner session, the tools used for all auditory, visual, and kinesthetic sessions were also used. According to the mentioned model, a teacher can engage students' emotions when teaching different subjects of the Persian language, especially cultural subjects. The teacher can integrate all aforementioned sessions while stimulating visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, etc. senses. so that learners learn more effectively. In addition, recommended strategies can be useful for Persian language instructors, textbook authors, and holders of Persian language workshops to provide them with appropriate materials for teaching.
Reza Pishghadam; Elmira Farkhondefal
Abstract
1. IntroductionLearning occurs best in educational settings where learners are motivated. Previous research has indicated that motivation is one of the important factors that affects learner’s performance and success significantly (Dörnyei, 2105). Positive relationships between teachers and ...
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1. IntroductionLearning occurs best in educational settings where learners are motivated. Previous research has indicated that motivation is one of the important factors that affects learner’s performance and success significantly (Dörnyei, 2105). Positive relationships between teachers and learners provide them with the opportunity to enhance their motivation. Stroke is one of the important factors that contribute to the positive relationship between teachers and learners. Therefore, it is suggested that stroke can be directly related to motivation (Francis & Woodcock, 1996). Stroke is defined as every action to acknowledge other’s presence and values (Shirai, 2006). The current study was conducted to investigate the notion of stroke from different aspects and to suggest a new classification of this concept as well. In other words, we tried to explain and clarify the concepts of stroker and strokee and point out their implications in second language teaching. Hence, we explored the concept of stroke in psychology and second language teaching by proposing a new classification for different kinds of strokers and strokees. Furthermore, implications of this classification in educational contexts are presented in this study. 2. Theoretical Framework One of the main approaches to investigate interpersonal relationships is transactional analysis (TA) introduced by Eric Bern (1960). One of the most important components of TA is stroke which is defined as recognition of other’s presence and values (Shirai, 2006). Strokes are considered as noticeable interpersonal contacts that satisfy individual’s emotional needs of being acknowledged by others. Bern (1988) used the term “recognition hunger” to refer to this need. There are different types of strokes: positive or negative, conditional or unconditional, and verbal or non-verbal (Stewart & Joines, 1987). Strokes are exchanged between individuals unconsciously and constantly (Borrow, 2007). It has been stated that if individuals do not receive positive strokes, they look for negative ones to satisfy their need for being acknowledged by others. Thus, it can be concluded that giving negative strokes is better than no strokes (Stewart & Joines, 1987). Additionally, scholars have stated that strokes can be directly related to motivation achieved through positive and negative reinforces (Pishghadam & Khajavy, 2014). As we know, positive relationships between teachers and learners result in enhancing learners’ motivation. One of the most effective factors in a positive relationship between teachers and learners is teacher care (Foster, 2008), which is closely associated with the concept of stroke. In fact, stroke is an important component of teacher care. This indicates the significant role of stroke in educational settings. 3. Disccussion In this study we explored the notion of stroke in psychology and second language teaching. New classifications for different kinds of strokers and strokees are proposed in this section. Generally, a stroker is a person who gives strokes to others (giving feedback of any kind, smiling, frowning, nodding, shaking hands, and so forth.). A strokee is the one who receives strokes from others. In any interaction between individuals the position of strokers and strokees can be exchanged between them. Strokers and strokees can be classified into three groups: overstroker/overstrokee, optimal stroker/optimal strokee, and understroker/understrokee. An overstroker is a person who is willing to give a lot of strokes to other people. An optimal stroker is someone who is moderate in giving strokes to others, and an understroker is a person who is not willing to give strokes to people. In addition, similar to this classification for strokers, three kinds of strokees are expected respectively. 4. Conclution and SuggestionThe aim of the current study was to investigate and clarify the concepts of stroker and strokee and introduce a new classification for these concepts. Furthermore, implications of these notions in second language teaching are presented as well.As already mentioned, strokers and strokees are classified into three groups. However, it seems that in every interpersonal relationships, one should consider the culture and characteristic features of his/her audience so that strokes are in line with the addressee. Hence, in educational settings particularly second language classes that are stoke-rich environments in which verbal and non-verbal strokes are given and received, teachers should know about learners’ culture and characteristics, otherwise giving and receiving strokes may cause great discomfort to learners and demotivate them consequently. Therefore, teachers should increase their level of emotioncy (Pishghadam, Jajarmi, & Shayeste, 2016) toward the concept of stroke so that they give and receive strokes in educational contexts appropriately. On the whole, it seems that personality, culture, and other factors are of paramount importance in determining individual’s willingness to give and receive strokes. Therefore, future research can focus on these core components associated with the concept of stroke.
Elham Naji Meidani; Reza Pishghadam; Behzad Ghonsooly; Azar Hosseini Fatemi
Abstract
1. IntroductionIn our age of speed and communication, time plays an important role in all dimensions of our lives. Globalization, which has brought about intensity of human relations, has raised the value of time. Time is a complex concept which has developed a specific meaning in every culture and society. ...
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1. IntroductionIn our age of speed and communication, time plays an important role in all dimensions of our lives. Globalization, which has brought about intensity of human relations, has raised the value of time. Time is a complex concept which has developed a specific meaning in every culture and society. People's conceptions about time have such high significance that some perceive them as the type of culture those people live in. Levine (1997) contended that a culture’s basic value system can be reflected in its norms and beliefs about time; thereby time is considered a social construct. English language teachers and learners deal with English culture, in which time is highly valued. Using Bourdieu's (1984) terms, they are in a "field" in which time and punctuality are important, and which being punctual can turn into a "habitus". Therefore, it is assumed that because of their familiarity with English culture, these two groups may have different conceptions towards time and a critical view towards how time is managed in the Iranian society and the educational system.2. MethodologyTo collect the required data, face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted in Persian. The interviews were all conducted in language institutes. The number of participants was not set a priori and with 8 language teachers and 10 language learners saturation point was gained. The language teachers and learners were all teaching and learning at English language institutes in Mashhad, respectively. A set of eight questions was designed regarding the participants' sociological conceptions of time. The first five items were broad, general questions, and the researcher added complementary questions in the course of the interview. The last three questions consisted of three hypothesized scenarios based on White, Valk, and Dialmy's (2011) study, in which the interviewees were asked how late each person in the scenario can come late. The social relationships in three situations were designed based on Scollon and Scollon (2001). Therefore, three relationships were taken into account: deference, solidarity, and hierarchy.3. ResultsOverall, the findings revealed that both teachers and learners are dissatisfied with time management in the educational system and everyday culture and they themselves have not been influenced by English culture's punctuality. The themes extracted from the interviews were the following: lack of adequate attention to time in the educational system, high potentiality for waste of time in language classes, a passive attitude towards time in Iranian culture and society, having the right to be late based on social relationships, thinking about the future and not the present, and not being influenced by western culture's punctuality.4. DiscussionDue to their particular characteristics, English language classes have a different environment from other classes. Examples of these characteristics include: discussing various topics, doing group work, and having a friendly and fun environment (see Pishghadam, Zabihi, & Shayesteh, 2015). The aforementioned features increase the level of subjectivity in English language teaching (ELT) classes and learners try to present their ideas and opinions. They certainly do have many advantages for learners and can increase their creativity, emotional intelligence, willingness to communicate, and social skills. However, if management is not properly done, these positive points can lead to a waste of time in the classroom. Some learners' over talking lead to feelings of dissatisfaction in the others and decreases the efficiency of the class. The other issue mentioned in the interviews was error correction. What seems important is that error correction should not take up too much of classtime. A particular aspect of English language classes is the comparison of learners' home culture with the target culture. Unfortunately, past research has revealed that this point often brings about deculturaltion in learners and even teachers (Pishghadam & Navari, 2009; Pishghadam & Saboori, 2011; Rahimi, 2011; Shahasavandi, Ghonsooly, & Kamyabi, 2010). It appears that learners and teachers pay attention to the negative aspects of Western culture and become influenced by it, but they do not show much interest in the positive aspects, such as punctuality and time management. The results revealed that in two types of relationship lateness was considered acceptable, namely, solidarity and hierarchy. In case of solidarity, the close relationship that exists between the two sides allows for the tolerance of unpunctuality. This can be explained by the fact the Iran is a high-context culture (Hofstede, 1986). Similarly, the hierarchical context allows for acceptance of unpunctuality of the superior by the inferiors. A contradiction found in the results is that although the interviewees showed dissatisfaction towards the delay of instructors in appointments, when they were put in the hypothetical scenario and asked about how late a university instructor can come, they mentioned long periods. This point demonstrates that in our society, the cultural aspect can be more favored that the moral or reasonable aspect. As the findings of the interviews revealed, the basis of inadequate attention to time is culture. Time is an important concept in the field of language learning with many applications. Since learning English has become a necessity nowadays, there is a need for speed in learning to reach the required credits as soon as possible. Therefore, more research should be done in line with this study.
Fatemeh Mohaghegh Mahjoobi; Reza Pishghadam; Azar Hoseini Fatemi
Abstract
1. IntroductionCultural infrastructure in adopting appropriate teaching and learning methods in EFL classes is crucial. The meaning of silence is culture-bound and cultural guidelines govern when and why one employs silence. Learning to speak and write in English in Iranian EFL classrooms seems to be ...
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1. IntroductionCultural infrastructure in adopting appropriate teaching and learning methods in EFL classes is crucial. The meaning of silence is culture-bound and cultural guidelines govern when and why one employs silence. Learning to speak and write in English in Iranian EFL classrooms seems to be a process of challenging one’s values. Iranian EFL learners, with a “silence is gold” mentality and accustomed to a dialectic approach in education tradition, experience a totally new atmosphere in English classes including discussions and interaction with their teachers and peers. Thus, diversity of views in educational practices underscores the necessity of understanding the meanings of silence that are common in a given socio-cultural context such as Iran. Also, the relevance of silence meanings to educational practices in Iranian EFL classrooms can assist language learners to gain the most from their EFL classroom and can improve their speaking and writing skills.In Iran, parts of these cultural guidelines come from educational literature, religious teaching and every day culture in a society.2. MethodologyThe present study aimed at uncovering the underlying assumptions about silence in Persian culture within the framework of Hofstede’s(1991) and Hall’s (1976) theories as well as relevance theory (Sperber & Wilson, 1986, 1995) through content analysis. Multiple data collection sources (proverbs, literary and religious texts) were utilized both to provide in-depth information and to increase the validity of the findings. Consults with experts in the field of Persian literature and theology provided a basis for developing the scope and orientation of the research.Didactic literature including poetry and prose on silence was garnered in chronological order during the period of the 4th to the current century. The unabridged dictionary of Persian proverbs (Dahgan, 1383) and ten thousand Persian proverbs (Shakoori Rad, 1382) were selected to draw the proverbs on silence.Religious texts on silence, i.e., Quranic verses and Hadiths by the Prophet Muhammad, Imam Ali and other Imams were obtained respectively from Akhlagh dar Quran (Makarem shirazi, 1378), Nahjolbalaghe (Dashti, 1379), and Nahjolfesahe (Payandeh, 1383).The data collection resulted in a corpus of 600 verses and prose, 250 proverbs as well as 180 verses and Hadiths. Themes that emerged from the coding were analyzed using the software program Nvivo8. The data collection continued until saturation was achieved. Thus, concepts which were closely linked in meaning were formed into categories and categories with similar meanings, in turn, were brought together into a theme. Overall, 13 categories emerged. Then the categories were revised, modified and later collapsed into seven themes.3. DiscussionHighlights of the findings are as follows. The literary texts and proverbs take precedence firstly over intellectual and next over moral functions of silence while the priority in religious texts is first on the moral and next on the intellectual function of silence.The intellectual function of silence drawn from literary texts highlights its role not only in saving one’s face and saving one’s life but also in saving others’ face and saving others’ lives. It seems that in a collectivist culture such as Iran, it is important to maintain unity and harmony. Intellectual function drawn from religious texts serves to protect Muslims “in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property and where no danger to religion would occur thereby” (Mo’men, 1985, p. 102). Promoting silence in literary texts related to moral function of silence is under the influence of religious teachings. This function places emphasis on promoting piety and salvation. According to the religious texts, the dangers and harms of tongue are many and there is no rescue from them except silence. Hence, moral function of silence (guarding one’s tongue), on one hand leads to personal self-improvement and salvation and on the other hand, leads to society prosperity by sustaining consensus and avoiding conflicts.4. ConclusionThe results reveal that silence majorly has intellectual and moral functions in Iranian culture. Therefore, it can provide a clearer picture of Iranian culture. The findings of this study provide a detailed and localized understanding of the assumptions of silence which seems necessary to the process of teaching and learning English.
Reza Pishghadam; Haniyeh Jajarmi
Abstract
IntroductionGiven the essential role of research in our country and considering the Perspective Document of 1404 and its increasing emphasis on science-based knowledge production, it seems crucial to address the issue of research and the probable problems and obstacles in the way of valuable and high ...
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IntroductionGiven the essential role of research in our country and considering the Perspective Document of 1404 and its increasing emphasis on science-based knowledge production, it seems crucial to address the issue of research and the probable problems and obstacles in the way of valuable and high quality studies. One way to assess the state of research in a country and find and address the intervening obstacles and problems is investigating its cultural context. In reality, different cultures exist in one country. One type of culture is that of trust and distrust. Trust can be considered as an individual perception and at the group level, as a culture. It has been introduced as a dimension of social capital and a preservative agent among the values that should be created, enhanced and published in every social groups of the society. However, numerous studies have shown that social trust is not of a desirable condition in many societies, including Iran. The question here is how the cultural context of a society affects its research procedures; a momentous subject which has taken notice of fewer researchers in the field of research in Iran. Thus, in this study, we intend to investigate trust, as a cultural element, and its probable impact on citation in the field of foreign languages.
Theoretical FrameworkTrust is a psychological state, shown in response to others' behavior, on the basis of expectations that are created based on the behavior of others. As Fukuyama (1995) believes, in order to progress and develop, we need to raise the awareness of the existence of trust (or distrust). According to Origgi (2004), trust in the integrity of the speaker is an important component of the process of mutual understanding. In fact, in recent years, the acknowledgment of "trust" as reflecting sundry roles, functions, and levels of analysis is considered as a turning point for theory and research on this issue.
MethodologyIn this study, a group of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad professors (4 females and 6 males) ranging from 30 to 65 years of age, majoring in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), English Language and Literature, English Translation, and French Language and Literature, along with a group of PhD students in TEFL (8 females and 3 males) in the age range of 28 to 38 were recruited based on purposive sampling. With 21 participants, the data reached saturation and no new results were extracted. Subsequently, semi-structured interviews were utilized for data collection.
Results and Discussion
Content analysis of the interviews indicated the influential role of trust in selecting and citing articles. Our sample professors emphasized that they cite articles on the basis of trusting their authors. A number of professors believed that if the articles have the necessary quality, they will place their trust in their authors and cite them. Additionally, a number of students said that they put their trust in the authors who specifically carry out research in a particular field of study. Moreover, the participants often preferred to take advantage of articles by foreign authors. Their reasons were: Iranian author's disrespecting the principles of writing, their lack of authority, plagiarism, inaccuracy of data collection, and the low scientific level of the articles. Most of the professors stated the reasons of their distrust in national articles as lack of supervision over the procedure of article writing, the quantitative view of our educational system, and the lack of dialogue between colleagues. Consequently, most of the professors would not trust their students' research projects, if they didn't know them well. Fifty percent of the professors trusted their own works and cited them. However, the other 50 percent, in spite of trusting their own works, didn't use self-citation inorder to observe the research ethics. Furthermore, a consensus of opinion was reached by both groups in that there have been few citations to the Iranian articles by foreign researchers. Finally, the participants attributed the low trust in national scientific-research productions to the wrong policy of our educational system and as a result, the Iranians' attention to the quantity rather than the quality of the articles.
ConclusionAccording to the results of this study, it is concluded that the root of distrust in the studies conducted by the Iranians in Iran, especially in the field of foreign languages, can be sought in two basic issues:1- The country's educational system2- The macro policy and the article-oriented educational and research system of the country in recent years.With regards to the first issue, most of the participants in this study contended that there is not sufficient and specialized training to educate capable researchers in national as well as international arenas. Th e necessity of enhancing skills such as critical thinking, initiation, and creativity is clearly felt, not only in the graduate levels but also in elementary and secondary levels. Furthermore, with regards to the second issue and according to the participants of the present study, the macro policy and the article-oriented educational and research system of the country in recent years is considered as a big blow for research and scientific productions in our country, deserving of a fundamental note and a revision of the existing laws and policies in this regard.
Elham Naji Meidani; Reza Pishghadam; Mohammad Ghazanfari
Abstract
The global spread of English, co-occurring with globalization, has generated new views towards some issues in English language teaching, one of which being the place of home culture versus foreign language culture in English language classes. The following study aimed to compare the viewpoint of three ...
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The global spread of English, co-occurring with globalization, has generated new views towards some issues in English language teaching, one of which being the place of home culture versus foreign language culture in English language classes. The following study aimed to compare the viewpoint of three groups, i.e. language teachers, language learners and parents regarding the role of home culture in English language teaching. To this purpose, a questionnaire was distributed to 360 people (120 from each group) and their viewpoints about three constructs, i.e. “domination of English language and culture”, “teaching culture” and “place of home culture in English classes” were compared. The results revealed that in relation to the first construct, language teachers had a significantly higher level of critical understanding (p
Reza Pishghadam; Fatemeh Vahidnia; Ailin Firoozian Pooresfahani
Abstract
Considering the reciprocal relationship between culture and language and the fact that culture finds its reflection in the language people employ, we can understand the society’s world-view through culturology of language.Hence, the current research is about to dissect and analyze the speech act ...
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Considering the reciprocal relationship between culture and language and the fact that culture finds its reflection in the language people employ, we can understand the society’s world-view through culturology of language.Hence, the current research is about to dissect and analyze the speech act of cursing in Persian and English languages. To this end, 200 movies (100 English movies and 100 Persian movies) were watched, cursing phrases were transcribed, and then scrutinized. The collected data was analyzed based on Hymes’ (1967) model of SPEAKING. The findings of this study revealed that Iranians utter curses to express anger, whereas English people mouth swear words on the same occasions. Furthermore, based on the obtained results, it was found out that females employ curses more frequently than males do.In the end, people’s intentions of cursing were examined and categorized into ten groups.
