Research Article
Ali khazaeefarid; Marzieh Malekshahi
Abstract
1- IntroductionModern historiography is based on theory, methodology and research epistemology. This discussion has recently entered the field of translation studies and many TS researchers have since focused on the concepts of history, historiography and methodology in translation historiography, enriching ...
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1- IntroductionModern historiography is based on theory, methodology and research epistemology. This discussion has recently entered the field of translation studies and many TS researchers have since focused on the concepts of history, historiography and methodology in translation historiography, enriching the field by offering and promoting different approaches to translation history.2- Theoretical frameworkAnthony Pym’s ideas are important in this respect. He sees translation historiography as having three levels: archeology, criticism and interpretation. Archeology addresses such questions as "who?", "where?", "when?" and "what? (which text?)" and provides the necessary data to be used in the next levels. In this level, the information is presented as lists or catalogues. Historical criticism explores intertextual relations in order to address the question "how?". According to Pym (1992), neither can become properly historical until they address such questions as "why this text", "why in this way? " and "with what actual effect?", questions which fall within the realm of interpretation which is the objective of true historiography. Pym (1992) believes that most of what we commonly accept as texts on the history of translation belong to the field of archeology or criticism, and not to historiography as such; neither archeology nor criticism is able to formulate hypotheses pertinent to the dynamics of change, both failing to capture and explain change – a feature which must be placed above all other things in historiography. Pym (1992) argues that this complication stems from the fact that few researchers know exactly what they aspire to find and how they wish to find it. According to Pym (1992), therefore, the historiography of translation remains mostly impressionistic, with little attention given to a scientific basis that might be gained through the testing of falsifiable hypotheses. In his article “shortcomings in the historiography of translation”, Pym (1992) complains about a situation that translation history has been stuck in and attribute this situation to seven shortcomings: “(1) archeological accumulation of data that respond to no explicitly formulated problematic, (2) dependence on anecdotal evidence, (3) indiscriminate periodisation, (4) visions of translations as expressions rather than potential agents of historical change, (5) axiomatic privileging of target cultures, (6) the use of unfalsifiable methodological hypotheses, and (7) failure to appreciate the interculturality of the translator's position”(Pym, 1992: 15).3- MethodologyThe present study is a case study and qualitative in nature. Drawing on Pym’s approach to translation history, this article aims to study Bā Cherāgh o Āʾeene: Dar Jostojūye Taḥavvole Sheʿre Moāṣere Fārsī (With Lamp and Mirror: In Search of the Roots of Modem Persian Poetry) written by Mohammad Reza Shafiee Kadkani.4- DiscussionThrough the analysis of the book, it was made clear that Kadkani has avoided the common shortcomings in translation historiographies by using documents, avoiding anecdotal narrative, and stressing the active role of translation and translators in the process of change. By focusing on the source culture, Kadkani has also overcome the objections raised by Pym to system theory which mostly focuses on the receiving end. 5- Conclusion Given these points, it can be said that Kadkani’s methodology in historiography is very similar to Pym’s in the following respects: 1- Responding to an explicitly formulated problematic (the evolution of modern Persian Poetry); 2- Dependence on the documents and avoiding anecdotal evidence;3- Seeing translations as the potential agents of historical change;4- Privileging source cultures;5- Appreciating the interculturality of the translator’s position;6- Applying falsifiable methodological hypotheses.
Research Article
Ehsan Panahbar; Akbar Hesabi; Hussein Pirnajmuddin
Abstract
1. Introduction The issue of translation equivalence has received increasing attention from translation theorists and translators, but it seems that this issue can be investigated at different levels and from different perspectives. Reception Theory which appeared from the second half of the 20th century ...
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1. Introduction The issue of translation equivalence has received increasing attention from translation theorists and translators, but it seems that this issue can be investigated at different levels and from different perspectives. Reception Theory which appeared from the second half of the 20th century as an opposition to New Criticism, was to re-define the author-reader-text relation in different forms. In this theory, the author is de-centralized and unfocused and the reader and his perception based on his historical and sociocultural contexts are at focus. In this regard, Wolfgang Iser developed a branch of Reception Theory, i.e. School of Reception Aesthetics, which per se represents the issue of equivalence in case of translation. Moreover, by presenting Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), Lakoff and Johnson (1980) opened a new window towards equivalence theory and dealt with the problem of equivalence at the conceptual level. Following this theory, diverse cognitive approaches such as Tabakowska’s experiential equivalence (1993) and Mandelblit’s Cognitive Translation Hypothesis (1995) were concerned about translation equivalence. Therefore, the main objective of the present study is to investigate aesthetic equivalence using the two theories of Iser’s Reception Aesthetics (1974) and Conceptual Metaphor Theory of Lakoff and Johnson (1980) in order to promote an integrated model out of Mandelblit (1995) and Tabakowska (1993) with aesthetic equivalence.2. Methodology The study uses a qualitative approach and the research method is descriptive-analytical. Library research techniques, qualitative content analysis methods, and scientific conceptual metaphor identification methods were employed for collecting data. The sample size includes two quatrains selected in a purposive method from Rubayyat of Khayyam and their English translations by Fitzgerald. The inclusion criterion for selecting these two quatrains was their enrichment in terms of conceptual metaphors which were identified using methods of Pragglejaz Group (2007) and Steen (2007, 2009). 3. Discussion After extracting conceptual metaphors, they were analyzed using cross-domain mapping methods in the source text and target text and then, cultural, cognitive, and aesthetic models were analyzed and compared in the two texts. After that, employing the integrated model presented in the study, metaphorical mappings were investigated and compared in the Persian quatrains and their English translations in order to identify that cross-domain mappings in the two conceptual systems were similar (in case of Similar Mapping Conditions or SMC) or culture-specific (in case of Different Mapping Conditions or DMC). In addition, this issue was investigated that the translator employed which cognitive strategies in case of facing these two situations in translating metaphors. Moreover, aesthetics experiences and conceptualization of sociocultural worlds of Iranian-Khayyamic and Western-Victorian cultures were investigated based on Iser’s definitions and the ideas in relation with aesthetic reception of texts. In investigating quatrains, it seems that Khayyam reveals his ideologies and worldviews regarding the Universe, human destiny, determinism, creation (birth) and death, criticism of the Existence System, etc. in the form of conceptual metaphors. Therefore, he uses conceptual metaphors and metonymies to express his text-world and aesthetics towards humanity and the Universe. It seems that thoughts in these quatrains in the form of conceptual metaphors and metonymies can be based on Khayyam’s sociocultural and historical contexts constructing his cultural and aesthetic models in the form of cognitive schemas. Fitzgerald uses different cultural models such as “chess” instead of “puppetry” to create conceptual-aesthetic equivalence between the two conceptual systems. According to Iser’s reception aesthetics, and Lakoffian CMT, equivalence should be considered at the aesthetic level or the level of understanding texts as well as the conceptual level with regard to cultural and conceptual systems which apply imagination as well. As observed, in the new cultural, experiential, and conceptual system, Fitzgerald tries to create equivalence at the mentioned levels by switching in conceptualizations (conceptual metaphors). In addition, it seems that the translator faces different mapping conditions in conceptualization of these metaphors and metonymies due to differences in cultural models; therefore, these different mapping conditions make him keep equivalence at conceptual and aesthetic levels. As a result, in the framework of Iser’s theory according to which texts should be read in their specific sociocultural systems and via readers’ imagination, Fitzgerald uses the technique of switch of mapping to change conceptualizations. 4. ConclusionAccording to the results of the study, it can be concluded that in the two analyzed quatrains and their translations, conceptual metaphors have significant roots in cultural models of communities; therefore, production and perception of these metaphors need familiarity with their sociocultural and historical contexts in each discourse community. As a result, the translator changes conceptualization in his conceptual system in case of the DMC caused by differences in cultural models of the two systems to keep conceptual equivalence. Moreover, in case of the SMC, the translator, influenced by similar cultural models in the two cultures, tried to keep original conceptualizations. The results also indicated that aesthetic equivalence in translation can be investigated and aesthetics as a component can be added to the integrated model in the present study.
Research Article
Mahmoud Afrouz
Abstract
1. Introduction Identity has its roots in a nation’s culture. Persian translators have strived to render a lot of Persian literary works into English in order to introduce Persian culture to the world. However, not all Persian works are rendered for the first time by Persian translators. Normally, ...
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1. Introduction Identity has its roots in a nation’s culture. Persian translators have strived to render a lot of Persian literary works into English in order to introduce Persian culture to the world. However, not all Persian works are rendered for the first time by Persian translators. Normally, native translators are expected to have full familiarity with their own culture. But, the question is whether their acquaintance would result in a more accurate rendition of culture-specific terms or not? Can it be claimed that native translators are more capable than non-natives as far as the preservation of cultural values is concerned?In order to answer the aforementioned questions, the present paper have studied and compared two English translations of Sadeq Hedayat’s “The Blind Owl”, one by the native English D. P. Costello (1957) and the other by the native Persian Iraj Bashiri (2013).2. MethodologyThe present study is descriptive in nature. Newmark’s (1988) model has been employed as the method of analysis of the data gathered from the comparison of the two English translations of “The Blind Owl”, one by a native and the other by a non-native. The following are the different translation procedures offered by Newmark (1988): Transference, Naturalization, Cultural equivalent, Functional equivalent, Descriptive equivalent, Componential analysis, Synonymy, Through-translation, Shifts or transpositions, Recognized translation, Compensation, Modulation, Paraphrase, Couplets, and Notes.The study was carried out through several steps:• Persian culture-specific concepts in The Blind Owl and their English equivalents were identified and classified into different cultural categories.• The mistranslated and untranslated CSCs were identified.• Procedures employed in the translation of each CSC were specified according to the classification of procedures proposed by Newmark (1988a).• Finally, a number of untranslated or challenging cultural terms were meticulously investigated. 3. DiscussionThe biggest barrier in the way of translation seems to be the problem of finding congruent equivalents for source language culture-specific concepts in the target language. Scrutinizing the two translations of The Blind Owl revealed that about 20 terms were left untranslated. The words “azal” and “abad” were omitted by Costello, but rendered by Bashiri as “the beginning of eternity” and “the end of eternity”, respectively. It is noteworthy to mention that according to the Oxford Dictionary 'eternity' has no beginning and no end. Although Bashiri's equivalent does not seem to be an accurate one, his attempt to find an equivalent, instead of omitting it, as Costello did, should be appreciated. 'Pre-eternity' and 'post-eternity' may also be considered as better equivalents for azal and abad.The term “tanbur” is rendered by the two translators as “lute”. However, Bashiri resorts to the following supplementary information in footnote to offer a more accurate rendition: “Setar or sitar is a lute-like instrument with a long, fretted neck, a resonating gourd or gourds, and usually six playing strings and a number of strings that vibrate sympathetically”. Via the procedure of “note”, Bashiri explains the differences between the two cultural terms and reminds the TT reader that “tanbur” is not the same as “lute”; it has its own specifications, and it has its own independent identity, it is just “like” a lute in English culture. Moreover, Costello, not making much effort to show the differences between the ST and TT culture-specific terms, rendered the three terms related to Persian musical instruments “setar”, “tonbak”, and “sanj”, respectively as “sitar”, “drum”, and “cymbals”.The term juki, being rendered by Costello as 'fakir', refers to the word jugi, which is derived from yuga. Remember that juki is an Indian ascetic, not a beggar. The word faghih is translated as 'a jurist' and 'an interpreter of the law' by Bashiri and Costello, respectively. In Islamic culture, a person who becomes faghih has certain characteristics (e.g. being a man, and being just and righteous, etc.). The term faghih is a CSC. It is categorized in the realm of religion and is fully understood in Islamic culture, but “lawyer” or “jurist” is a relatively neutral word and is not categorized in the same realm.4. ConclusionBy analyzing the data presented in this study, it was found that the procedures ‘functional equivalent’ and ‘notes’ would have a higher potential for conveying the concepts underlying the CSCs embedded in The Blind Owl. Moreover, it can be claimed that the combination of these procedures would result in a more accurate understanding of the CSCs than other procedures.Costello, comparing to Bashiri, seemed to have been less concerned with cultural issues and preservation of national identity. He had majorly selected English cultural goods as an equivalent for the original Persian cultural goods as if there is actually no difference between them. When an English audience reads his translation, he may think with himself that the goods in the source culture (SC) are exactly like the ones in the target culture (TC), or worse, the SC has no independent identity and the superior TC has exported the goods to the SC. Although it seems a little bit exaggerated, through such an analysis, the work of Bahiri, in particular, and any native translator, in general, becomes conspicuous. All in all, native translators are likely to attempt more than non-natives to demonstrate their national identities and preserve their own cultural values.
Research Article
Shahram Delshad; Seyyed Mehdi Masboogh
Abstract
1. Introductionsince the early hegira centuries up to the contemporary era “One Thousand and One Nights” stories have been translated into Arabic. During this period we have been confronted with a great many of the translators doing translation jobs from various source languages into different ...
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1. Introductionsince the early hegira centuries up to the contemporary era “One Thousand and One Nights” stories have been translated into Arabic. During this period we have been confronted with a great many of the translators doing translation jobs from various source languages into different target languages, thus we are bearing witness to the imposition of variegated tastes and styles into the translations presented of the book. This has resulted in full eradication of the original version, the numerosity of the copies and the substanital discrepancies in the equivalents offered of the story book. The similarity between the basic foundation of the translations put forth by Tesuji and Eghlidi and Mar’ashipur (published by Bulaq institution in Egypt) provides an appropriate and suitable grouding for the research into the way these three translators have made a connection with the original text. Ommission is considered as one of the important indices by means of which one can deal with the criticism of a translation work based on the theory proposed by Jean Rene Ladmiral, the French target language-oriented theorist. Such a process in the translation operation happens due to cultural, linguistic, stylistic, etc requirements. The current research paper is trying to evaluate the ommission process in three subject matters of “the expressions of love”, “the translation of the poems” and “the translation of the Arabic-Islamic signs”in the Persian translations presented for the story book “ألف لیلة ولیلة” meaning “One Thousand and One Nights”.2. Theoretical FrameworkOne of the most important issues discussed by Jean Rene Ladmiral, target language-oriented theorist, which is the second most significant topic dealt with in the book written by Ladmiral, is “entropy” meaning “loss of information or compaction” and it is suggested to the translator as opposing redundancy by Ladmiral. Quite contrary to redundancy, there are cases in which the semantic implied via the use of source wording is seen as less important or even unessential. Therefore, a translator can ignore or should ignore translating them in some of the cases. Not only redundancy but also entropy, defined as unavailable parts in a system, basically mean gradual loss of information which can also be traced in the signified level. In the signifier level, it is sometimes allowed to lighten the text which is recognized as being redundant and verbiage, if such a redundancy can be realized as unified with nonverbal language habits and gestures and it will be better if it can be made incongruent therewith (Mohseni, 2009: 244). Such an issue stems from the translator’s target language-centeredness and it is noteworthy to say that the source language-oriented theorists disagree by all means with the entropy. 3. Study MethodologyThe study methodolgy adopted by the curent research paper is a descriptive-analytical one and the authors try to deal with the process of entropy (ommissions) in the persian translation of “One Thousand and One Nights” (translated by Tesuji, Eghlidi and Mar’ashipur) in three different areas (expressions of love, poem translation, Islamic and Arabic signs). The present study has been laid upon the formulations posited in Ladmiral’s theory.4. Study Findings and DiscussionMost of the omissions in “One Thousand and One Nights” translations pertain to the depiction of the expressions of love. Even there are cases in some of the Arabic versions which are found as being inconsistent with the nobility and decency and hence omitted due to substantial oppositions demonstrated by the jurisprudents and the clergymen. Persian translators each have chosen to take on an independent route but very close to one another. The first translator, Tesuji, tries to express the meanings and semantics of the love expressions somehow in an ambiguous and unveiled manner and avoids transfering the details. Eghlidi as a result of choosing to adopt a source language-oriented translation in rendering of the story “One Thousand and One Nights” advances further inside the realm of transfering the details and providing in-depth descriptions of the original version. Mar’ashipur transfers such expressions of love out of staying loyal to the source language text and there are a few omissions observable in his rendering of the story. Regarding the criticism of the translations presented for the poems recited in “ألف لیله ولیله”, an Arabic rendering of the title of the book “One Thousand and One Nights”, it is worth mentioning that since the poems presented therein are not enumerated in general as active elements of advancing the narration and the plot of the story omitting them from the context does not expose the translation work to any suffering. But holding such a view regarding the poems cannot be generalized and applied to the entire book; since, occasionally, poems play a critical and effective part in the narration’s evolution. Tesuji generally falls short of providing equivalent translations for the poems and whatever is left of the translation of the poems in his rendering of the story book belongs to the literary works performed by his poet colleague, Sorush Isfahani. It is noteworthy that Sorush has not translated the poems, except for a few cases; rather poems from the Persian poets have been substituted for the Arabic poems of the story book through adhering to the contextual contents’ commonalities. But Eghlidi, except for a few cases of taking advantage of the translations made by the other poets, has done about ninety percent of the extant poems’ translations through offering a poetic and literal word-for-word Persian equivalent. Mar’ashipur has carried out a similar but a lot more difficult work the same as Tesuji has performed. While the task of translating and replacing the poems has been assigned to Sorush in Tesuji’s rendering of the story book, Mar’ashipur himself has achived this goal. It has to be stated that Mar’ashipur’s performance in contrast to what has been carried out by Sorush lacks elegance and accuracy and many of the translations of the poems are found disproportionate to the narration. Tesuji more than Eghlidi and Mar’ashipur more than Eghlidi has resorted to some entropies which are figured out as being resulted from cultural features and in some of the cases he has tried to mitigate the domination of elements such as Arabic environment and rituals which are inset as patches on the book.5. ConclusionA great many of the omissions in persian translations are related to Tesuji’s and Mar’ashipur’s unduly free and target-oriented approach in their renderings, unlike Eghlidi who has been bound to the main text and has less resorted to omissions. Through takig advantage of the omission process in the translation, Tesuji has been able to reduce the redundancies and boring and weary repetitions and provide the reader with a text more compact than the main text and this is why his translations seems more attractive. Also, reducing and decreasing the mass of the poems have made the book pruned of the numerous poems which cause a slackness in the narration of the story and therefore would otherwise result in tiredness and distantness of the readers of the main course of the story. Of course, occassionally, the lack of correct understanding of the redundancies in the translation presented by Tesuji appears damaging the method of story-telling and style of the book. Being loyal to the main text, Eghlidi has imported repetitions and redundants which seem to have been derived out of the prescribers’ false understanding of the main text and the oral style of the book and he is found falling short of dealing with garnishing the text. Also, the one hundred percent transfer of the poems to the target language without taking advantage of ommission and even reducing the poems by Eghlidi has made such poems to every now and then appear weak and annoying and this has caused his translation to look less legible and coherently less beautiful.
Research Article
Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh; Maryam Sadat Musavi Tekyeh
Abstract
1. IntroductionSartre’s famous line in No Exit “Hell is other people” (p. 45) stands as a direct confirmation of the power of Others. In fact, “[o]ur perception within the field of the Other is therefore always a battle with the Gaze: we struggle with the limitations of the structure ...
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1. IntroductionSartre’s famous line in No Exit “Hell is other people” (p. 45) stands as a direct confirmation of the power of Others. In fact, “[o]ur perception within the field of the Other is therefore always a battle with the Gaze: we struggle with the limitations of the structure that is laid out for us” (Grootenboer, 2012. p.45). To spin a piece of common thread intertwining all entities together right at the outset, Burt (2008) asserts that: “When validation and identity derives from others, others become hell, a state where torture is not meted out by devils but self-inflicted and inescapable” (p. 411). Therefore, under the gaze of the other person, our identities withdraw into the shell of reduction. We no more exist by ourselves, but our lives seem to be entangled in the labyrinthine network of others’ existences. The story of No Exit turns around three people trapped in a setting resembling a hotel room in Hell. Finding themselves situated in the endless life after death free of earthly boundaries, they are seemingly given the desired liberty to define who they may be. But as it happens they are unable to do so because of the power of the Others in the room. 2. MethodologyThis paper adopts Sartre’s theories about gaze and individuality in the light of Foucault's insights (1997) about power relations. We can follow the reiteration of this commitment in Boileau’s thesis (2004) as well. He has acknowledged the vote in favor of “[t]he gaze and discipline of the Other actively weave individuals into the relations of power,” as interspersed among his observations (1998, p. 13). 3. DiscussionSartre’s famous play No Exit, as it was initially entitled les autres (The Others), betokens the sweeping declaration of Sartre that Garcin yields to near the end of the play that “Hell is other people”( p.30). So the very title shows Hell and Others are aligned with the very same attributes that frame their perimeters. Lois Gordon brings to light the significance of the original title: “For those who have spent their lives catering to or dependent on the world of Others, hell is indeed, and appropriately, other people, with an emphasis on ‘other’” (Fahy & King, 2005, p. 170). And as it is obvious Sartre’s No Exit, treats “not only with life at its limit (namely, death) but also with the utter Hell of human relationships” (Solomon, 2006. p.51).The story of No Exit pivots on a very few characters, “each take turns attempting to gain control of the situation through their looks” (Brunner, 1997. p.60). The characters of Garcin, Estelle and Inez see themselves helpless at the surveillance of the Other’s mutual gaze, their destiny becomes directed by their power, as Inez’s words reverberates and epitomizes this state, “each of us will act as torturer of the two others” (Sartre, 1989.p. 49). And what the Others make of them in fact, will torture their self-identity (Solomon, 2006).In the light of the Other’s habit of superintendently defining one’s body, it conglomerates the jurisdiction of gaze with power relations. And as it does not escape Foucault’s notice “power relations have an immediate hold upon it; they invest it, mark it, train it, torture it, force it to carry out tasks, to perform ceremonies, to emit signs” (Foucault, 1997.p.63). The body that is enslaved to the gaze and judgment of other individuals, its conscience is stubbornly under their surveillance to shape its own morality. Carving out their beings in the grips of a judging look ushers the three of characters in the labyrinths of objectifications. This happens while the comfort of their solitude is totally shattered and in consequence they grapple with conflict of freedom. The characters find themselves subject to the look of the Other. As they are conscious of the presence of someone else, another consciousness, who is watching and scrutinizing them, their individuality is tampered and flirted with what Sartre calls being-for-others. As he claims in Being and Nothingness “the Other as a look”, enforces the subjects to experience their “inapprehensible being-for-others in the form of a possession. . . . the Other's look fashions [their] body in its nakedness, causes it to be born, sculptures it, produces it as it is, sees it as [they] shall never see it” (p. 364). INEZ’s words give credit to the Other’s look that can harness the subject’s individuality in a volley of abuse: “And why shouldn't you ‘tame’ me?” (Sartre, 1989.p.55)As pointed out earlier, the unstable power relations have given rise to individual’s freedom where he can defy or act on his own from the power relation. Naturally, “power relations are not equivalent to a physical determination where there is no choice available” (Boileau, 2004.p.81). Individuals within the realm of power relations settle upon enlisting the game, or withdrawing from it. “Once within the relation, individuals continue to have the possibility of reasoned choice and refusal” (Boileau, 2004.p.82).As it goes, the power relations cannot subsist on reluctant participants.4. ConclusionSartre claims that people relate to themselves and to one another through either looking or being looked at. When they give false images of themselves, they assume to be no more than the objects of their own look or confine themselves up in their own subjectivity. The power that Look exerts on the body becomes visible to the naked eye through the particular discipline to which the body is exposed and henceforth inclined. By tailoring a particular use of the body for a certain atmosphere, the gaze casts its net of power over one’s individuality, freedom and judgment to fix and define them on its whim.A final recapitulation binds all the above-mentioned claims together. Accordingly appearing as atomized and alienated individuals “annihilating each other through their Look” (Boileau, 1998, p. 219; Boileau, 2004, p. 78); Garcin, Estelle and Inez can’t follow an ethics of authentic existence lending credence to the idea of false reciprocity.
Research Article
Mohammad Reza Farsian; Sara Javanmardi
Abstract
1. IntroductionComparative literature is an essentially French science that has formed in the early nineteenth century. This science is a branch of literary criticism that compares and peruses the cultural and literary relations between the nations. This field of literature reviews and analyses the correlation ...
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1. IntroductionComparative literature is an essentially French science that has formed in the early nineteenth century. This science is a branch of literary criticism that compares and peruses the cultural and literary relations between the nations. This field of literature reviews and analyses the correlation and similarities between different nation’s literature and culture. Comparative literature explains the comparative studying and perusing on works which resulted from the different cultural backgrounds. In fact, this science is a means of scrutinizing the worlds’ literature, and it is a hatch to see and hear the people thoughts from every color, race, language and nationality. Consequently, perusing contently and structural similarities between writer’s literary works driving from different cultures and nations is a branch of comparative researches that has been constantly at the center of researchers ‘attention. In this article, we intend to study on a research in this field by having a glance on Victor Hugo and Shapur Gharib’s works. The reason for this choice is that they are too much similar in narrative structure. Actually, we will find out there are similar events in two stories in two western and eastern societies. 2. DiscussionVictor Hugo, the greatest poet and novelist of France in the nineteenth century. Hugo tries to narrate the story and the black fate of an ugly boy who always have a hideous laughter on his face in the novel “The Man Who Laughs”. This novel is narrating the painful and distressful life of a child that is handicapped by the kids trader and seems always laughing by a wound on his face. Shapur Gharib, contemporary Iranian writer and director, recounting the story of an ugly girl's misery in the novel Ozra Landuke”. Both stories are narrating the story of humans who are not good looking, those who has been humiliated and teased by others due to their flaws in the appearance while they are repleted with honesty, purity, humanity and love . They are unattractive in appearance but beautiful inside. It should be noted that, in addition to substantive similarity between the two stories, there can be seen relationship and similarities in the narrative structure. Narrative structure of the two stories has also been perused in this article. Character and characterization, subject and theme, plot, narrative angle, the type of conversations, time, space and colors are of the items that have been scrutinized in two stories structures. There are resemblance among the characters in the novels “The Man Who Laughs” and Azra Landuke. Goinplein, Dia and Ozra. Sometimes Ozra takes the role of Goinplein and sometimes resembles to Dia during the story. It should be mentioned that “The Man Who Laughs” is written in novel structure while “Azra Landuke” is in short story structure and characterization in short stories is easier and more limited. In addition to the common theme, there can also be seen similar purporst in both stories. Face inelegance, the beauty of soul, humanity, eternal love, kindness, poverty, misery disadvantaged class, disappointment, regret, pain, suffering and death are the common themes of the story. But the narrative and attitude of the two stories are different. In “The Man Who Laughs” the story is based on the intellect or omniscient point of view, while in Gharib’s story, it is quoted by an extraneous and unimportant character. In the novel “The Man Who Laughs”, short conversation and authors’ language is the predominant language, Language and expression that belong to the France nineteenth-century literature. There are short talks in” Ozra landuke” as well but they reflect the opinions and thoughts of characters who has slangy language. Time and space are obvious in “The Man Who Laughs”. The story occurs in the early eighteenth century during the aristocracy dominion in England. While the place and time is not specified in “Ozra landuke”. It is the same patrician mansion that Ozra is its maid.3. ConclusionThe novel “The Man Who Laughs” and Ozra Landuke are similar in different aspects such as characterization and structure, theme, subject and plot. However, attitude, narrative and dialogue type are differences in the two stories. In this paper, we have observed several structural and substantive similarities between the two works. In fact, the two authors utilized the same means to reflect the bitter reality in human life. People from two different territories have equal fears, concerns and issues, and are facing similar crises and turmoil. Though there is no exact information about Gharibs’ relation with French language, literature and writers, the similarity between two stories is insofar as that the thought that Gharib was effected by the western writers and literary events just like his contemporary Iranian authors is not too far-fetched.
