Document Type : Research Article

Authors

1 Depart,ment of English, Azad Islamic University, Tehran, Iran

2 Department of English, Azad Islamic University, Semnan, Iran

Abstract

Given the growth of new technologies in the field of education, further research and development in this field can lead to the emergence of new educational methods for curriculum providers and teachers. Most teachers aim at raising learners’ noticing and developing their language learning competencies. The present paper investigates learners’ noticing and their achievement in certain grammatical structures in two cognitive and ecological perspectives on language learning. In doing so, the learners were assigned to four experimental groups and were taught certain grammatical structures in two different cognitive and ecological approaches through oral and writing modalities. The sample of the study included 120 students from Islamic Azad University and University of Applied Science and Technology in Tehran. Tools used to gather data were observation, interviews after each session, and one grammar test including target structures. The results of the study showed that there was a statistically significant association between learners’ noticing and the cognitive approach to language learning. However, the ecological approach was more effective in learning the given structures. The results of the analysis also revealed that learners’ noticing and their grammar learning were not statistically different in writing and oral groups. The ecological perspective, which is a new educational and ecological-driven approach and focuses on language tools in the space and environment and learners’ interactions, can act as an innovative approach in the education system of Iran.

Keywords

پیش‌قدم، ر.، و ابراهیمی، ش. (1401). فرهنگستان و زباهنگستان: دو بال تعالی زبانی و فرهنگی. مطالعات زبان و ترجمه، 55(3)، 29-1.
خدامرادی، ا.، و مقصودی، م. (1401). آسیب شناسی طرح جایگزینی واژگان بیگانه در کتب درسی با واژگان مصّوب فرهنگستان زبان و ادب فارسی. مطالعات زبان و ترجمه، 55(3)، 31-63 .
راستی، ع. (1401). نگاهی نقّادانه به فرایند واژه گزینی فرهنگستان زبان و ادبیات فارسی در پرتو رهیافت سیاست گذاری و برنامه ریزی زبانی. مطالعات زبان و ترجمه، 55(3)، 65-89 .
 
Ammar, A., & Spada, N. (2006). One size fits all? Recasts, prompts, and L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28(4), 543-574.
Baleghizadeh, S., & Derakhshesh, A. (2012). The effect of task repetition and noticing on EFL Learners’ oral output. International Journal of Instruction, 5(1), 141-152.
Cross, J. (2002). Noticing in SLA: Is it a valid concept? TESL-EJ, 6(3), Available Online: http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej23/a2.html.
Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2001). Learner uptake in communicative ESL lessons.  Language Learning, 51(2), 281-318.
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019). Task-based language teaching: Theory and practice. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 
Fahim, M., & Sabah, S. (2012). An ecological analysis of the role of role-play games as affordances in Iranian EFL pre-university students’ vocabulary learning. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(6), 1276-1284.
Gilabert, R., Manch´on, R., & Vasylets, L. (2016). Mode in theoretical and empirical TBLT research:   Advancing research agendas. Applied Linguistics, 36(2), 117-135.
Goo, J. (2020). Research on the role of recasts in L2 learning. Language Teaching, 53(3), 289-315.
Goo, J., & Mackey, A. (2013). The case against the case against recasts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(1), 1-39.
Grabowski, J. (2010). Speaking, writing, and memory span in children: Output modality affects cognitive performance. International Journal of Psychology, 45, 28-39.
Gurzynski-Weiss, L., & Baralt, M. (2014). Exploring learner perception and use of task-based interactional feedback in FTF and CMC modes. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 36(1), 1-37.
Izumi, S. (2013). Noticing and L2 development: Theoretical, empirical and pedagogical issues. In J. M. Bergsleithner, S. N. Frota, & J. K. Yoshioka (Eds.), Noticing and second language acquisition: Studies in honor of Richard Schmidt (pp. 25-38). Hawaii, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Kellogg, R. T. (2007). Are written and spoken recall of text equivalent? American Journal of Psychology, 120(3), 415-428.
Khatib, M., & Alizadeh, M. (2012). Output tasks, noticing, and learning: Teaching English past tense to Iranian EFL students. English Language Teaching, 5(4), 173- 187.
Kormos, J. (2014). Differences across modalities of performance. In H. Byrnes & R. M. Manch´on (Eds.), Task-based language learning: Insights from and for L2 writing (pp. 193-216). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Leow, R. P. (2006). The role of awareness in L2 development: Theory, research, and pedagogy. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 2(2), 1-15.
Leow, R. P. (2015). Explicit learning in the L2 classroom: A student-centered approach. London, England: Routledge.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2013). How languages are learned. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Loewen, S., & Sato, M. (2018). Interaction and instructed second language acquisition. Language Teaching, 51(3), 285-329.
Loewen, S., Isbell, D. R., & Sporn, Z. (2020). The effectiveness of app-based language instruction for developing receptive linguistic knowledge and oral communicative ability. Foreign Lang. Ann, 53(2), 209-233.
Long, M. (2007). Problems in SLA. New Jersey, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in   communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1), 37-66.
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (2013). Counterpoint piece: The case for variety in corrective feedback research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(1), 1-18.
Lyster, R., Saito, K., & Sato, M. (2013). Oral corrective feedback in second language classrooms. Language Teaching, 46(1), 1-40.
Mackey, A. (2006). Feedback, noticing and instructed second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 27(3), 505-530.
Mackey, A., Gass, S., & McDonough, K. (2000). How do learners perceive interactional feedback? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22(4), 471-497.
Maftoon, P., & Shakouri, N. (2012). No implicit learning is possible without awareness! In favor of noticing hypothesis. Journal of American Science, 8(1), 56-63.
Mirzaei, A., Abdollahian, Z., & Ranjbar, M. (2012). The role of noticing in L2 learners’ production of intonation patterns. The Journal of Teaching Language Skills (JTLS), 4(1), 141-170.
Morris, F. A., & Tarone, E. E. (2003). Impact of classroom dynamics on the effectiveness of recasts in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 53(2), 325-368.
Nabei, T., & Swain, M. (2002). Learner awareness of recasts in classroom interaction: A case study of an adult EFL student’s second language learning. Language Awareness, 11(1), 43-63.
Navidinia, H., Mobaraki, M., & Malekzadeh, F. (2019). Investigating the effect of noticing on EFL students’ speaking accuracy. International Journal of Instruction, 12(1), 83-98.
Ögeyik, M. C. (2017). The comparative effectiveness of noticing in language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 56(4), 1-23.
Oliver, R., & Mackey, A. (2003). Interactional context and feedback in child ESL classrooms. Modern Language Journal, 87(4), 519-533.
Révész, A. (2009). Task complexity, focus on form, and second language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(3), 437-470.
Robinson, P. (1995). Aptitude, awareness, and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit second language learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 303-357). Hawaii, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129-158.
Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R. (2010). Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language learning. In W. M. Chan, S. Chi, K. N. Cin, J. Istanto, M. Nagami, J. W. Sew, T. Suthiwan, & I. Walker, Proceedings of CLaSIC (pp. 721-737). National University of Singapore, Queenstown, Singapore.
Sheen, Y. (2004). Corrective feedback and learner uptake in communicative classrooms across instructional settings. Language Teaching Research, 8(3), 263-300.
Smith, B. (2010). Employing eye-tracking technology in researching the effectiveness of recasts in CMC. In F. M. Hult (Ed.), Directions and prospects for educational linguistics (pp. 79-98). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Smith, B., & Renaud, C. (2013). Using eye tracking as a measure of foreign language learners’ noticing of recasts during computer-mediated writing conferences. In K. McDonough & A. Mackey (Eds.), Second language interaction in diverse educational contexts (pp. 147-165). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Tarone, E., & Bigelow, M. (2007). Alphabetic print literacy and processing of oral corrective feedback in L2 interaction. In A. Mackey (Ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition: A series of empirical studies (pp. 101-121). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Thi, N., & Nhung, P. (2020). Noticing hypothesis in second language acquisition. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 25(6), 26-30.
Truscott, J. (1998). Noticing in second language acquisition: A critical review. Second Language Research, 14(2), 103-135.
Van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic.
Van Lier‚ L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness‚ autonomy and authenticity. Harlow, England: Longman.
Wen, Q. F., Wang, H. M., Wang, J. Q., Zhao, C. R., & Liu, Y. P. (2010). Comparative study of critical thinking skills of Chinese college students of English major and other liberal arts majors. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 42(5), 350-400.
Williams, J. (2012). The potential role(s) of writing in second language development. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(4), 321-331.
Yilmaz, Y. (2013). Relative effects of explicit and implicit feedback: The role of working memory capacity and language analytic ability. Applied Linguistics, 34(3), 344-368.
Zalbidea, J. (2017). “One task fits all”? The roles of task complexity, modality, and working memory capacity in L2 performance. Modern Language Journal, 101(2), 335-352.
Zalbidea, J., & Sanz, C. (2020). Does learner cognition count on modality? Working memory and L2 morphosyntactic achievement across oral and written tasks. Applied Psycholinguistics, 41(5), 1171-1196.
Ziegler, N. (2016). Synchronous computer-mediated communication and interaction: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(3), 553-586.
CAPTCHA Image