Language and Translation Studies (LTS)

Abstract Although transformational leadership is recognized as one of the most effective educational leadership styles, the psychological mechanisms underlying its impact on teachers’ job performance are not fully understood. This study aimed to examine the relationship between transformational leadership and job performance, considering the mediating role of job motivation among senior high school English teachers in Golestan Province. The research was applied in purpose and descriptive-correlational in method. The statistical population consisted of 200 teachers, from whom 135 were selected using the Krejcie and Morgan table and cluster random sampling. Data were collected through standardized questionnaires on transformational leadership, job motivation, and job performance, and analyzed using structural equation modeling with SPLS software. The findings indicated that transformational leadership has a positive and significant relationship with job performance, and job motivation plays a significant mediating role in this relationship.

Abstract Self-regulated learning is a key factor in academic success, particularly in foreign language learning, and is influenced by individual and environmental factors. This study examined the relationship between perceptions of the learning environment and self-regulated learning, considering the mediating roles of academic emotions, attributional styles, and achievement goals among French language students. Using a descriptive-correlational design, structural equation modeling (SEM) through AMOS was conducted on data from 117 students at Hakim Sabzevari University, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, and the University of Tehran (M = 23.11 years). Data were collected using standardized measures of learning environment, achievement goals, academic emotions, attributional styles, and self-regulated learning. The findings showed a significant positive relationship between perceptions of the learning environment and achievement goals, whereas no significant relationships were found with academic emotions or attributional styles. These findings highlight the importance of cognitive-motivational processes in understanding self-regulated learning among French language students.

Abstract Culturally responsive classroom management plays a great role in effective teaching and learning. Teachers, therefore, should be aware of its importance, recognize students' family backgrounds and individual micro-cultures, and incorporate them into their classroom practices with respect and sensitivity. Some studies have focused on this topic in some countries. This study aims to investigate this issue in the Iranian context. It seeks to qualitatively explore the perspectives of English Language teachers holding different academic degrees, including BA, MA, and PhD. After interviewing 56 instructors and observing their classes, 11 main themes were found (establishing rules and regulations, making friends with students, being flexible, choosing syllabus course materials based on students' cultures, remaining nonjudgmental, having management strategies, knowing students' cultural backgrounds, respecting students, accepting criticism from students, thinking, and changing prejudices and biases). The results can be fruitful for all the people involved in education.

Abstract To investigate the impact of the multisensory method at the pre-school level, this study employed beta-waves during vocabulary retention. Six EFL learners were assigned to two groups: non-multisensory and multisensory. The comparison of the results of pre- and post-brain records denoted no significant differences in beta frequency ranges between the groups. A significant correlation was found between learners’ mean score on the post-test and the increase in beta wave-frequencies on Fp1-Fp2-regions at post-records in the multisensory-group; however, the case study analysis showed decreases in beta1 wave frequencies in the non-multisensory-group. The topography-inspections demonstrated increases in high-beta-wave frequencies in the prefrontal cortex in both groups and activity localization on the para-hippocampal in the multisensory post-records. The statistical results of non-parametric tests on groups’ mean scores revealed no significant difference between experimental and control groups. The study concluded the promising role of multisensory teaching to improve retention at the pre-school level.

Abstract Research suggests teachers’ professional vision influences motivation, while vision-reality discrepancies predict burnout. This study investigates the vision-burnout relationship among young learner EFL teachers, drawing on the L2 Motivational Self-System framework. The study examines this connection and identifies implementation barriers. Using mixed-methods, the data were collected from 347 teachers via burnout and vision questionnaires, supplemented by focus group interviews with 40 novice Young Learner English teachers. The quantitative analysis revealed vision significantly predicted depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment. The qualitative findings highlighted contextual challenges in achieving ideal teaching environments. The results demonstrate that EFL teachers’ classroom vision is a dynamic, multifaceted construct influenced by contextual, institutional, and personal factors. The study advances understanding of teacher motivation by clarifying how professional vision interacts with workplace realities in young learner contexts. The findings emphasize the importance of addressing vision-reality gap in teacher development programs to support wellbeing and job satisfaction. 

Abstract This study was an attempt to compare the neural processes of two proficiency levels through employing a stroop-like multi-word units task. The participants were selected based on purposive sampling through a test of language proficiency. Analysis of the data revealed no significant differences in the reaction times. There was a significant difference between two levels of proficiency and Plausible Target Distractor (PTD) condition in F3, F4, C3, C4, Fz, Fp1 and P3 channels and PDT in Fz, F8 and O2 channels and Implausible Target Distractor (ITD) in F8, Fz, C4 and T4 channels. A greater recruitment of the frontal lobes was observed as the participants needed to make judgments. The findings provide insights for the understanding of processing mechanisms related to multi-word units such as collocations in the brain. They also reveal the different areas of the brain involved in terms of cognitive variances.

Abstract This qualitative study examined the perceptions of pre-service, in-service, and retired English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers regarding the concept of praxical hope within public school settings in Gorgan, Iran. The researchers interviewed 42 participants, including 13 pre-service teachers, 16 in-service teachers, and 13 retired teachers, to explore the nuanced understandings and implications of praxical hope in EFL education. Employing a constructivist grounded theory framework and analyzing data using MAXQDA 24, the study identified 46 initial codes and categorized them into 25 thematic groups. This process led to the development of a model of praxical hope characterized by four key elements: empowerment and agency, collaborative learning environments, critical reflection and social awareness, and innovative pedagogical practices. The findings underscore the vital role of cultivating praxical hope in enhancing educators' effectiveness and improving student outcomes, providing insights that can inform future language education strategies.

Abstract Although English plays a significant role in the international context, it has failed to occupy a proper position in the Iranian instructional framework, leading to students' weak performance. Therefore, this study attempted to explore the literature on the challenges of the current ELT curriculum in the educational system of Iran. Moreover, the challenges were analyzed in connection with the principles of Multimodality, Multiple Intelligence, Social Identity, and Sociocultural Theories. The review and comparison process were based on PRISMA_SCR. Then, a total of 49 articles were selected from well-established journals to map the related challenges and shortcomings. The results revealed that the challenges can be divided into eleven categories ranging from economic and political issues to ideological and cultural ideas. Nine challenges could be explained in relation to the mentioned frameworks. Therefore, it could be concluded that the inclusion of these theories in the process of curriculum development may help eliminating those challenges.

Abstract This study examines the relationship between Directed Motivational Currents (DMCs) and English Language Classroom Anxiety (ELCA) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) learners. DMCs, defined by sustained, goal-driven motivation, are essential for long-term language learning, whereas ELCA, characterized by anxiety in classroom settings, can impede progress. Employing an explanatory mixed-methods approach, the study collected quantitative data from 140 participants and qualitative insights from 20 in-depth interviews with learners experiencing varying levels of DMCs. Findings revealed a significant negative correlation between DMCs and ELCA, with ESL learners reporting higher motivation and lower anxiety due to greater language exposure and integrative motivation. Qualitative findings emphasized the role of teacher support, learner goals, and contextual factors in shaping motivation and anxiety. These insights highlight the importance of goal-oriented learning environments that enhance motivation while reducing anxiety, offering practical implications for educators and curriculum designers.

Abstract This study explored Iranian university students’ best and worst experiences in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, examining their antecedents and emotional responses. A qualitative phenomenological design was conducted with 62 convenience-sampled Iranian students (20 male, 42 female), aged 18–27, enrolled in a general English course. Adapting the Critical Incident Technique (CIT), the researchers elicited learners’ emotional experiences via a narrative frame and analyzed the data inductively using MAXQDA. Findings revealed three major insights: the best experiences were associated with the teacher as a source of affective support, a positive and humanized learning environment, and moments of personal triumph and competence. The worst experiences involved public failure, negative interpersonal dynamics, negative test experiences, impairment of student well-being, and feelings of language incompetence. Enjoyment emerged as the predominant positive emotion, whereas hopelessness was the most frequent negative one. The study offers implications for promoting emotional well-being in EFL classrooms.

Abstract Although EFL teachers have implemented listening strategy instruction like online metacognitive interventions, these efforts have proved ineffective in specific contexts. To address this, this mixed-methods study explored the impact of a hybrid cognitive-metacognitive intervention on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ listening comprehension. A total of 122 learners from four intact classes participated, with 83 assigned to four groups: EG1 (WM-only), EG2 (MI-only), EG3 (both WM and MI), and a control group receiving conventional instruction. Results indicated that the hybrid intervention significantly enhanced learners’ listening comprehension abilities. Additionally, semi-structured interviews revealed that MI-only intervention notably reinforced comprehension, whereas WM-only intervention was particularly effective in reducing foreign language listening anxiety. These findings imply that combining cognitive and metacognitive strategies can effectively improve listening skills. EFL teachers are encouraged to adopt this hybrid approach with confidence. Future research should consider longer and more frequent WM training sessions to achieve even better outcomes.

Abstract This study explores the impact of code-switching on Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, focusing on its influence on their willingness to communicate (WTC) and fluency in the second language (L2). Code-switching, the practice of alternating between languages in conversation, is examined as a potential facilitator or barrier to effective communication. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative assessments of WTC and fluency and qualitative interviews to gain insights into learners’ experiences. The results showed that code-switching can enhance learners’ WTC and fluency. Moreover, the interview results showed that for L2 learners, besides using Persian unconsciously, the most frequent reason was to build confidence and comfort, and the least frequent was to develop metacognitive skills. This study contributes to the understanding of linguistic strategies employed by L2 learners and highlights the need for pedagogical approaches that balance code-switching with immersion in the target language.

Abstract This study investigates the ideological concepts in learning English and Arabic as foreign languages from the perspective of parents in Iran. Using semi-structured interviews with 50 parents of middle school students in Tehran, the study explores their attitudes toward these languages. Findings reveal that parents’ view English as essential for their children's future success. They see English as a bridge to the world and for better opportunities. In contrast, Arabic is valued primarily for religious and cultural reasons, particularly for reading the Quran, with limited practical relevance. Some parents expressed reluctance toward Arabic due to historical tensions with Arab countries. The study highlights how power, globalization, with English prioritized for global success and Arabic confined to religious purposes. These differences reflect the influence of cultural, political, and religious ideologies on language learning attitudes. The findings can guide educational policymakers in designing curricula that align with parental expectations.

Abstract With its dual focus on form and meaning, form-focused instruction (FFI) has increasingly attracted the attention of second language practitioners over the past two decades. What is underrepresented is the effect of variations of FFI across learners and learning contexts. This study investigated the impact of integrated and sequential FFI across field sensitivity styles. Forty-eight language learners (M_age=12) sat for a set of pretests, integrated and sequential tasks, and posttests. Following counterbalanced design, field dependent (FD) and field independent (FI) learners received the treatment once integratively and once sequentially. The results of t-test and ANCOVA revealed: a) Integrated and sequential FFI were equally beneficial for morpho-syntactic development; b) The sequential group outperformed in pragmatics; and c) FI learners were significantly better in vocabulary development. Following the research findings, language teaching practitioners are recommended to adopt a combination of sequential and integrated FFI to cater for different learners' cognitive styles.

Abstract The quality of reading skills largely depends on the application of critical thinking when reading texts. Despite extensive research on critical thinking within the field of ELT, the literature indicates that reading researchers mostly rely on general critical thinking scales, lacking a domain-specific tool for critical thinking in reading. This study aims to design and validate a multidimensional, self-report psychometric instrument to assess critical thinking in reading among ELT students. Utilizing an interactive reading framework and insights from semi-structured interviews, a hypothetical model of critical thinking was proposed, comprising seven components, leading to the creation of a 41-item scale. Analysis results confirmed that the newly developed scale is a comprehensive measure for assessing critical thinking skills in academic reading among ELT students.

Abstract This study investigated the relationships between sense of humor, self-efficacy, and burnout among Iraning EFL (English as a foreign language) teachers. Further, the mediating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between teacher sense of humor and burnout was investigated. To this end 107 EFL teachers from private language insitutes were selected through convenience sampling method. The findings of structural equation modeling analysis indicated that sense of humor and self-efficacy could inversely and significantly predict burnout. Further, sense of humor positively related to self-efficacy. This study also revealed that self-efficacy significantly mediated the effect of sense of humor on burnout among the EFL teachers. The implications were discussed, and suggestions were made for further research.

Abstract This study explores how task-based activities with varying cognitive loads affect EFL learners’ acquisition of morphosyntactic structures, specifically phrasal verbs and verb phrases. It also examines how metacognitive knowledge predicts learners’ ability to identify and produce these structures. Ninety Iranian EFL learners (58 females, 32 males; aged 18–24) were assigned to three groups: reading (A), reading with textual enhancement (B), and reading plus text reconstruction (C). Grammaticality judgment and text editing tests measured recognition and production. ANOVA, correlation, and structural equation modeling showed that Group C, performing the highest-load tasks, outperformed others. Production was linked to procedural knowledge, while recognition related to declarative knowledge. Structural equation modeling confirmed the role of metacognitive knowledge in both recognition and production across tasks. Findings highlight the value of cognitively demanding tasks and metacognitive awareness in improving learners’ mastery of complex morphosyntactic structures.

Abstract Anxiety plays a significant role in learning and especially in learning foreign languages. It should be noted that this kind of feelings may become an insoluble problem in learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) for students and even lead to dropping out among them. The current study used the capacity of existing studies in this field, which have expanded more in recent years, and especially the relevant articles in 2023 and 2024. By combining psychological studies in the field of anxiety with educational studies in this field, a comprehensive and practical summary was obtained. By deriving 23 strategies of reducing foreign language anxiety in the classrooms teaching English as a foreign language, this study contributes to the development of students' linguistic abilities and the teaching improvements in English language institutions of Iran.

Abstract Deaf individuals represent a small segment of the population, yet their recognition as third language learners in multilingual societies is increasing. This article reviews foreign language learning, particularly English, among deaf and hard-of-hearing learners in Iran, and examines challenges in foreign language education and teaching methodologies. It analyzes various disability models, including the medical and social models, and their impact on the educational experiences of deaf individuals. The importance of sign language as the primary language for deaf individuals is emphasized, highlighting the need for proficiency in this language to improve their linguistic and cognitive skills. Learning methods, such as auditory and visual techniques, are discussed as well. Additionally, the article addresses limitations in English education in Iran and stresses the need for teachers to be proficient in sign language, while suggesting ways to enhance awareness of deaf culture, design curriculum content, and create accessible educational environments.

Abstract The present study attempted to investigate and compare Iranian and Iraqi English as a Foreign Language (EFL) university students' emotional states experienced in writing classes. To do this, 301 Iraqi and Iranian university students were asked to fill out the Writing Emotions Scale (WES) and the Emo-Sensory Intelligence Scale (ESQ). The results revealed that students’ writing scores had a significantly positive relationship with their positive emotions and a significantly negative relationship with their negative emotions. Moreover, significant differences were found between some of the emotions experienced by Iranian and Iraqi students in terms of human and non-human writing elements, i.e., boredom, enjoyment, hope, and relief. The findings also indicated that ESQ positively predicts both Iranian and Iraqi students’ writing scores mediated by positive and negative emotions. Finally, the results were discussed and implications were provided in the context of language education.

Abstract This study was conducted to develop the Persian version of the professional ethics code and validate the scale for university instructors, considering the perspectives of professors from various academic disciplines. First, the Persian translation of the code was prepared. Then, the written and oral feedback from professors at several universities was analyzed during the qualitative phase. Next, the Persian version of the code, encompassing four components—commitment to students, commitment to the profession, commitment to the organization and commitment to society—was presented in the form of 54 propositions. In the quantitative phase, a 7-category scale for measuring professional ethics was prepared based on the code and was given to 200 university professors. The content validity and one-dimensionality of the scale were assessed. Consequently, 6 items were removed and the number of categories was reduced to five. Finally, the scale was refined to 48 items, using a 5-point Likert format.

Abstract This research aims to analyze the types of errors Persian–Kurdish bilingual learners make when using articles in the English language and investigate the effect of flipped learning on their performance based on the theory of mental spaces. This study focused on the types of errors produced by 92 bilingual Kurdish-Persian female students aged 12 to 15 and 32 female students aged 18 to 21 in the fields of psychology and accounting. The research method in this study was descriptive-analytical and the data were collected through a close-ended questionnaire. The findings showed that the frequency of errors resulting from the inappropriate use of articles was higher than the frequency of errors resulting from not using them among language learners. Also, the results of this study showed that teachers can use this approach to teach learners about the mental spaces of the English language through articles and to create sustainable learning. In addition, the implementation of the flipped learning strategy among language learners has increased communication among them and also caused interaction between teachers and language learners. Using flipped learning encouraged language learners to be more active and improve their learning by creating a competitive environment.

Abstract his study explored the strategies employed by Iranian EFL teachers to correct their induced errors in the classroom. The extent to which each strategy was used by the teachers was examined and the factors influencing their selection of error correction strategies were investigated. Twelve experienced Iranian EFL teachers were purposefully selected to participate in the study. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews. The data was analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. The findings revealed that the participating teachers employed various strategies to address their induced errors, including immediate self-correction, delayed self-correction, eliciting learner correction, and acknowledging and explaining errors. These strategies were influenced by factors such as pedagogical beliefs, content knowledge, and classroom management skills. The teachers generally viewed their induced errors as more serious and in need of immediate correction compared to learner errors.

Abstract The current study aims to scrutinize the theta/beta-ratio (TBR) brain oscillatory activities during T/F test of reading comprehension. The research utilized a quasi-experimental design. Thirty intermediate EFL learners (15 males, 15 females) were selected to participate in the study. They completed T/F-reading-test, while their brain oscillations were measured using quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG). Results revealed significant differences between the values indicating TBR before- and while-doing the test. Similarly, the topographic findings showed decrease in TBR power on the Fz, Pz and Cz regions of the brain under the task of reading and suggested the promising role of the reading comprehension T/F test at the intermediate level in modifying the TBR power and raising internally directed attention. The study has implications for all scholars in the field of TEFL to apply interdisciplinary approaches and to highlight the importance of reading comprehension tests to enhance attention.

Abstract Considering the rapid progress of technology in the fields of cognition, robotics, and artificial intelligence, as well as the abundance and easy access to educational materials in cyberspace, traditional education no longer meets the actual needs of society. Informal education has overcome formal education by placing a greater emphasis on techniques and skills. In this article, two types of education were introduced: a) Mindsetting education (including mind-filling education and mind-developing education) and b) Brainsetting education (including brain-exercising education and brain-generating education). The first relates to thinking and thoughts, and the second is knowledge and skills. In fact, with the advent of intelligent educational systems, there has been a shift from soft, mental, and human approaches to more hard, cerebral, and machine approaches, which teachers and educational specialists need to consider.